Did Emperor Hirohito bear Responsibility for the actions of essays

Did Emperor Hirohito bear Responsibility for the actions of essays Emperor Hirohito ruled over Japan from 1926 until his death in 1989. He saw Japan through World War II, its defeat and resurrection from the ashes to become a world-renowned industrial and economic power. He was the grandson of the famed Emperor Meiji, who was generally considered to be one of the best emperors of Japan. Emperor Hirohito was the center of controversy during his lifetime and after it as well. During the Majority of the post war period. He was considered to have no legal responsibility for Japans actions during World War II. The Occupying American forces after World War 2 decided not to put Emperor Hirohito on trial during the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. The Tribunal and the American and Japanese Government took the position that Emperor Hirohito was a Constitutional Monarch and that he had had no real power during World War 2. They state that he was forced to accede to the wishes of an expansionist military or face a military coup, which would depose the Imperial house . Only later during the last few years of Emperor Hirohitos life and after his death have any serious investigations into his role during World War 2 occurred. Historians had found several facts that put serious doubts in the idea that Emperor Hirohito was innocent of War Crimes. Now the question is whether or not he was responsible for the actions of Japan during World War 2 and if so to what extent? Some evidence that suggests that he might have had more responsibility for the actions of Japan during World War 2 then previous thought are the facts that the Meiji Constitution gave the Emperor enormous power. He was the titular Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. He could assemble and dismiss the Diet , All laws and bills had to be approved by him before being passed. He also had the power to directly negotiate treaties with foreign nations. Besides the enormous power that the Meiji Constitution granted the Emperor, traditionally the Em...

Behavior Impact and Definition of Mirror Neurons

Behavior Impact and Definition of Mirror Neurons Mirror neurons are neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing that same action, such as reaching for a lever. These neurons  respond to someone elses action just as if you yourself were doing it. This response is not restricted to sight. Mirror neurons can also fire when an individual knows or hears someone else performing a similar action. â€Å"The Same Action† It’s not always clear what’s meant by â€Å"the same action.† Do mirror neurons code actions corresponding to the movement itself (you move your muscles a certain way to grab food), or, are they responsive to something more abstract, the goal that the individual is trying to achieve with the movement (grabbing food)? It turns out that there are different types of mirror neurons, which differ in what they respond to. Strictly congruent mirror neurons fire only when the mirrored action is identical to the performed action- so both the goal and the movement are the same for both cases. Broadly congruent mirror neurons fire when the goal of the mirrored action is the same as the performed actions, but the two actions themselves are not necessarily identical. For example, you can grab an object with your hand or your mouth. Taken together, strictly congruent and broadly congruent mirror neurons, which together comprised more than 90 percent of the mirror neurons in the study that introduced these classifications,  represent what someone else did, and how they did it. Other, non-congruent mirror neurons don’t seem to exhibit a clear correlation between the performed and observed actions at first glance. Such mirror neurons may, for instance, fire both when you grasp an object and see someone else placing that object somewhere. These neurons could thus be activated at an even more abstract level. The Evolution of Mirror Neurons There are two main hypotheses for how and why mirror neurons evolved. The adaptation hypothesis states that monkeys and humans- and possibly other animals as well- are born with mirror neurons. In this hypothesis, mirror neurons came about through natural selection, enabling individuals to understand the actions of others. The associative learning hypothesis  asserts  that mirror neurons arise from experience. As you learn an action and see others performing a similar one, your brain learns to link the two events together. Mirror Neurons in Monkeys Mirror neurons were first described in 1992, when a team of neuroscientists led by Giacomo Rizzolatti recorded activity from single neurons in the macaque monkey brain and found that the same neurons fired both when a monkey performed certain actions, like grabbing food, and when they observed an experimenter performing  that same action. Rizzolatti’s discovery found mirror neurons in the premotor cortex, a part of the brain which helps plan and execute movements. Subsequent studies have also heavily investigated the inferior parietal cortex, which helps encode visual motion. Still other papers have described mirror neurons in other areas, including the medial frontal cortex, which has been recognized as important for social cognition. Mirror Neurons in Humans Direct Evidence In many studies on monkey brains, including Rizzolatti’s initial study and others involving mirror neurons, brain activity is directly recorded by inserting an electrode into the brain and measuring electrical activity. This technique is not used in many human studies. One mirror neuron study, however, directly probed the brains of epileptic patients during a pre-surgery evaluation. Scientists found potential mirror neurons in the medial frontal lobe and the medial temporal lobe, which helps code memory. Indirect Evidence Most studies involving mirror neurons in humans have presented indirect evidence pointing to mirror neurons in the brain. Multiple groups have imaged the brain and shown that brain areas which exhibited mirror-neuron-like activity in humans are similar to the brain areas containing mirror neurons in macaque monkeys. Interestingly, mirror neurons have also been observed in Broca’s area, which is responsible for producing language, though this has been the cause of much debate. Open Questions Such neuroimaging evidence seems promising. However, since individual neurons are not being directly probed during the experiment, it’s difficult to correlate this brain activity to specific neurons in the human brain- even if the imaged brain areas are very similar to those found in monkeys. According to Christian Keysers, a researcher who studies the human mirror neuron system, a small area on a brain scan can correspond to millions of neurons. Thus, the mirror neurons found in humans cannot be directly compared with those in monkeys to confirm whether the systems are the same. Furthermore, it is not necessarily clear whether the brain activity corresponding to an observed action is a response to other sensory experiences rather than mirroring. Possible Role in Social Cognition Since their discovery, mirror neurons have been considered one of the most important discoveries in neuroscience, intriguing experts and non-experts alike. Why the strong interest? It stems from the role mirror neurons may play in explaining social behavior. When humans interact with each other, they understand what other people do or feel. Thus, some researchers say that mirror neurons- which allow you to experience the actions of others- could shed light on some of the neural mechanisms underlying why we learn and communicate. For example, mirror neurons may provide insights on why we imitate other people, which is critical to understanding how humans learn, or how we understand other people’s actions, which could shed light on empathy. Based on their possible role in social cognition, at least one group has also proposed that a â€Å"broken mirror system† may also cause autism, which is partly characterized by difficulty in social interactions. They argue that reduced activity of mirror neurons prevents autistic individuals from understanding what others are feeling. Other researchers have stated this is an oversimplified view of autism: a review looked at 25 papers focusing on autism and a broken mirror system and concluded there was â€Å"little evidence† for this hypothesis. A number of researchers are much more cautious about whether mirror neurons are crucial to empathy and other social behavior. For example, even if you have never seen an action before, you are still capable of understanding it- for example, if you see Superman flying in a movie even if you can’t fly yourself. Evidence for this comes from individuals who have lost the capacity to perform certain actions, like brushing teeth, yet can still understand them when others perform them. Towards the future Though much research has been conducted on mirror neurons, there are still many lingering questions. For example, are they only restricted to certain areas of the brain? What is their real function? Do they really exist, or can their response be attributed to other neurons? Much more work has to be done to answer these questions. References A calm look at the most hyped concept in neuroscience – mirror neurons, Christian Jarrett, Wired.Acharya, S., and Shukla, S. â€Å"Mirror neurons: Enigma of the metaphysical modular brain.† Journal of Natural Science, Biology, and Medicine, 2012, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 118-124, doi: 10.4103/0976-9668.101878.Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., and Rizzolatti, G. â€Å"Action recognition in the premotor cortex.† Brain, 1996, vol. 119, pp. 593-609, doi: 10.1093/brain/awp167.Hamilton, A. â€Å"Reflecting on the mirror neuron system in autism: A systematic review of current theories.† Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2013, vol. 3, pp. 91-105, doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2012.09.008Heyes, C. â€Å"Where do mirror neurons come from?† Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews, 2009, vol. 34, pp. 575-583, doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.007.Keysers, C., and Fadiga, L. â€Å"The mirror neuron system: New frontiers.† Social Neuroscience, 2008, vol. 3, no. 3-4, pp. 193-198, doi: 10.1080/17470910802408513.Kilner, J., and Lemon, R. â€Å"What we currently know about mirror neurons.† Current Biology, 2013, vol. 23, no. 23, pp. R1057-R1062, doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.10.051. Kokal, I., Gazzola, V., and Keysers, C. Acting together in and beyond the mirror neuron system. Neuroimage, 2009, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 2046-2056, doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.010.Miklà ³si, . Do dogs have mirror neurons? Scientific American Mind.Mirror neurons after a quarter century: New light, new cracks, JohnMark Taylor, Science in the News.Reflecting on mirror neurons, Mo Costandi, The Guardian.The mind’s mirror, Lea Winerman, Monitor on Psychology.Uithol, S., van Rooij, I., Bekkering, H., and Haselager, P. â€Å"What do mirror neurons mirror?† Philosophical Psychology, 2011, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 607-623, doi: 10.1080/09515089.2011.562604.What’s so special about mirror neurons?, Ben Thomas, Scientific American Guest Blog.Yoshida, K., Saito, N., Iriki, A., and Isoda, M. â€Å"Representation of others’ action by neurons in monkey medial frontal cortex.† Current Biology, 2011, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 249-253, doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2011.01.004.

Public Officials and Public Opinion Polls Assignment

Public Officials and Public Opinion Polls - Assignment Example Policies are formed in a state for benefiting the citizens in various ways. For this reason, consents of people are important for selecting and developing appropriate policies for a state. In most of the country, the government is selected by the people. The citizen expects that the government will work for developing the country and facilitating the lives of people. The government needs to consider the opinion of the citizen while taking any major decision. By this process, the government will be able to understand the expectation of the people for the state and the things which create strong impacts on them (Burstein, 2003). Generally, policies are formed for improving the condition of the country. People of the state face different types of situations and circumstances for living their life in the state. They are the most appropriate people who can recommend the best policy for the country. With the help of public polls the government is able to understand the wants of the people and according to that, they can form effective policies for the state. Polls are the most powerful and effective tool in getting information and feedback from the people. Public opinion polls indicate the number of people interested in taking part in politics and decision process of the state. The opinions of maximum and a minimum number of people can be analyzed with the help of public opinion polls. When a government takes policy decision according to the majority opinions the citizens then the people tend to support the government. Public opinion polls are used by the public officials for giving importance to the people. With the help of public opinion polls, a government can show it’s concerned towards people opinion.

Interview with a tourist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Interview with a tourist - Essay Example She had thought about keeping her Chinese name in the United States, but other students that had studied abroad advised her that she should take on an English name to make life easier. Qiu told me that although she studied English when she was younger, she did not feel comfortable speaking it out loud. The main language that she spoke at home was Mandarin. No one else in her home spoke English, so the only time that she ever heard it was at school a couple of times a week. When I asked Qiu about common gestures in her culture, she told me that Chinese culture has many signs and symbols that may seem strange to an outsider. A lot of communication is nonverbal where hints have to be picked up from the way the other person uses hand signals and facial expressions. Qiu said that she was a little perplexed when she came to the United States because most people talked very loud and did not use many hand gestures. I also asked Qiu about how she felt that the American people had treated her during her stay here. She told me of some incidents in her first few weeks here that made her regret her decision to study abroad. Name calling and insults from people on the street really stressed her out. Since that time, Qiu now believes that most Americans are welcoming of people of other cultures and will go out of their way to make sure that they are okay. The negative incidents that she told me she described as coming from a few bad apples and not representative of the American people at all. One thing that I did not ask her, but that she brought up during general conversation, was the way in which Americans dress. Qiu told me that Chinese people dressed rather conservatively and considered in shameful to be underdressed or show any unnecessary skin. When she came to America, she was shocked to discover that university students could wear such informal dress. In China attending university was considered an honor,

Elli Essay Example for Free

Elli Essay The book â€Å"Elli† is an account of the Jewish race being devastated in the death camps during the Second World War. They suffered inhuman brutality and starvation. It was Elli’s courage and determination which helped her to stay alive. The Jews suffered inhuman brutality. An example of this is Felicia’s story. Felicia is the Blockalteste at Plaszow. She told of how she had to either shoot her family quickly or the German guards would kill all her family very slowly. Her eighteen month old baby boy was ripped in two just as an example of what was going to happen to her family if she did not kill her husband, father and mother. Elli listens in stunned silence to the most horrific event never heard until now. The Jews survived starvation in World War two by consuming raw food from the ground. These delicacies such as potatoes were smuggled into a factory in Dreherei and washed in the toilet. These were only eaten at night when the German guards were not around. One night the Jews in the factory burned a candle for Hanukkah using thread from their blankets as wicks, oil and potato halves carve hollow. It was courage which helped her to stay alive. Elli attacked an SS supervisor which is the gravest form of sabotage but she is still alive. Her mothers arm and leg was paralysed due to a bunk bed collapsing on her. Elli was so happy for saving her mothers arm from being broken, but which it led to two days of separation from each other. The book â€Å"Elli† is an account of her life being devastated in the death camps during World War Two. Her determination to stay alive saved her during innocent slaughter in the day prior to liberation. Her impulses told her to put from around her waist her metal soup bowl on her head as her surroundings were hammered with machine gun fire. She shouted to her mother to put her metal soup bowl on her head because she was looking after her brother Bubi, who had been shot in the head.

Rational Choice Theory in Political Science Essay -- Politics Culture

Rational Choice Theory in Political Science According to one of rational choice theory’s prominent and more thoughtful contemporary exponents, Peter C. Ordeshook, â€Å"four books mark the beginning of modern political theory: Anthony Downs’s An Economic Theory of Democracy (1957), Duncan Black’s Theory of Committees and Elections (1958), William H. Riker’s A Theory of Political Coalitions (1962), and James Buchanan and Gordon Tullock’s The Calculus of Consent (1962). These volumes, along with Kenneth Arrow’s Social Choice and Individual Values (1951), began such a wealth of research that political scientists today have difficulty digesting and synthesizing all but small parts of it. Consequently, the full value of this research often goes unrealized†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Ordeshook 1986, ix) In this essay I will argue that, contrary to Ordeshook’s claim, the â€Å"full value of this research† has actually been overstated; not for the lack of profundity in the assumptions and certain selected observations contained in the literature mentioned above, but for the failure of rational choice theory in explaining political phenomena empirically. This failure can be understood in terms of the fallacies associated with rational choice theory’s predictive and universalist aspirations, as well as in terms of the methodological misuse of the basic assumptions of rational choice theory when actually used in explanatory frameworks. As Donald Green and Ian Shapiro argue, the weaknesses of rational choice scholarship are rooted in the aspiration of rational choice theorists to come up with universal theories of politics, â€Å"which leads many rational choice theorists to pursue even more subtle forms of theory elaboration, with little attention to how these theor ies m... ...tional Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered. New Haven: Yale University Press Green, Donald P. and Ian Shapiro. 1994. Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science. New Haven: Yale University Press Green, Donald P. and Ian Shapiro. 1996. â€Å"Pathologies Revisited: Reflections on Our Critics.† In The Rational Choice Controversy: Economic Models of Politics Reconsidered, ed. Jeffrey Friedman. New Haven: Yale University Press Miller, Byron. 1992. â€Å"Collective Action and Rational Choice: Place, Community, and the Limits to Individual Self-Interest.† Economic Geography 68:1, 22-42 Ordeshook, Peter C. 1986. Game Theory and Political Theory. New York: Cambridge University Press Shapiro, Ian. 1998. â€Å"Can the Rational Choice Framework Cope with Culture?† PS: Political Science and Politics 31:1, 40-42

Administrative Ethics Essay

This article presents a case study highlighting the conflict between an individual’s right to privacy and the rights of patients and staff to know when a professional standard has been breached. The process by which the administrator determines a course of action is reviewed in the context of workplace realities through an ethical analysis. The growth of information systems and the increased involvement of third parties in decision-making have created new issues regarding confidentiality and the release of sensitive information for health care personnel who are in a position of public trust. The issues facing nursing administrators are complex, and of particular concern are the conflicting demands of providing quality care with limited resources. The authors identify strategies to deal with the workplace issues that give rise to the potential for abuse as well as the strategies to support an impaired colleague who attempts to reenter the workforce (Badzek, Mitchell, Marra, & Bower, 1998). When asking the general public what health care ethics and health care privacy mean, most will relate that they are about protecting patients. Health care ethics and health care privacy do exist to protect patients and to ensure that care is delivered with moral and ethical standards. Health care ethics not only apply to patients, but to organizations as well. The rapidly changing world of health care is witnessing a growing need for institutional ethics that includes ethical employer-employee relations. The article cited in this paper highlights two managers that encounter an employee diverting narcotics on the job, how each manager deals with this incident, and the ethical dilemma of whether this employee is entitled to confidentiality or if fellow staff should be informed of the narcotic abuse. Identifying and analyzing the ethical question is how the best possible solution may be determined. By examining the issue and its impact on the population affected, discussing the proposed solution, and highlighting the ethical and legal implications of the issue will explain managerial responsibilities in this case. Issue and Impact The article reflects the ethical dilemma of whether or not an employee who has been identified as using diverted narcotics on the job is entitled to confidentiality or if the staff involved with the employee are entitled to know about the drug abuse. Jackie is a nurse that has returned to work after taking many years off to raise a family. She takes a job at a hospital working in the flexible staffing pool. As time passes, Jackie finds that work is extremely stressful because she rarely works in the same unit. She is asked to pass meds and perform work she is unfamiliar with and despite asking for help, has not received adequate support. The increasing stress leads Jackie to divert narcotics. Jackie’s diversion of narcotics goes unnoticed for quite awhile because she works in so many different units. She is eventually discovered when she spends three weeks in the same unit covering for someone’s vacation. Michele and Karen are both nursing administrators involved in Jackie’s case. Jackie reports directly to Karen, who is head of the flexible nursing pool. Michele is the nursing administrator of the unit Jackie was discovered diverting narcotics from. Karen makes the decision to grant Jackie a leave of absence to pursue rehabilitation. The stipulation of completion of the rehabilitation program will allow Jackie to return to her job. Karen does not report Jackie to the State Board of Registered Professional Nurses because she is actively engaging in rehabilitation activities. Following these events, Michele meets with the human resources director, the nurse manager of the unit Jackie was working on when the drugs were diverted, and the chair of the nursing ethics committee to determine if further action should be taken. Michele believes that Jackie has a right to privacy and confidentiality, but thinks that an open staff discussion is needed to highlight for the staff the prevalence of nurse addiction. She also wants to identify if anyone knew or suspected Jackie’s diversion of narcotics and didn’t act. Karen’s concern is motivated by not knowing how to handle Jackie’s issue should she return to work and by the fact that Jackie compromised patient’s pain relief by diverting their narcotics. Karen objected to planning an open staff meeting because she felt  it would compromise Jackie’s confidentiality. Supporting the Proposed Solution The issues to address involve separating the greater good of the patient population and the rights of the other staff from the individual right of Jackie’s confidentiality. Karen believes that confidentiality should be protected without exception and that the corrective action initiated by the administration was adequat e. Karen also argues that if Jackie’s situation becomes common knowledge to staff, they might fear that other confidential information will be shared by administration. Michele believes that Jackie’s actions warranted a discussion with the nursing staff to determine if anyone knew or suspected and why they did not act. Despite Jackie’s willing participation in rehabilitation, she still needs to self-report to the State Board of Nursing. Mandatory reporting for most state boards includes actual or suspected drug diversion (Arizona State Board of Nursing, 2012). The State Board of Nurse Examiners assesses each report and can take disciplinary action, ranging from a reprimand, probation, suspension, revocation, or refusal to renew a license (Badzek et al., 1998). Michele needs to collect information about her organizational policy and procedures in relation to impaired employees. The state Nurse Practice Act provides standards of practice that reflect current state laws and regulations. In the absence of relevant law, ethics help determine what is morally acceptable (Weinstein, 1995). Information regarding the ethical and proper managemen t of nurses with substance abuse problems is also available through the American Associations of Colleges of Nursing (AACN). The arguments for protecting private information are closely linked to human dignity and respect (Garrett, Baillie, & Garrett, 2009). It is incredibly important for Michele to utilize all of these resources to sort through her legal and ethical obligations to patients, Jackie, other staff, and her profession. Managerial Responsibility Michele ultimately honors Jackie’s privacy and confidentiality, but in order to fulfill her ethical obligation to the nursing profession, she also finds solutions to place measures to provide competent, ethical nursing conduct. Solutions include: 1) clarifying policies and issues of employee  confidentiality 2) Identifying and developing education for administration in identification of ethical issues and decision making 3) Reviewing and improving policy in regards to impaired employees 4) Educating all staff about the signs and symptoms of drug abuse, reporting requirements, and the available resources. Conclusion When discussing privacy and c onfidentiality in healthcare we often assume that this is in regards to patients only. What the healthcare community is finding is that it is equally important to have clear policy and code regarding privacy in employer-employee relations. Ethical dilemmas are complex and require collection of all pertinent information to find ethical solutions. This paper highlighted an ethical dilemma that involved a choice between honoring an employee’s privacy and disclosing important information involving substance abuse to the other staff. Examining the facts and collecting information from professional organizations and regulatory agencies assisted in reaching an ethical decision. Not only was the employee’s privacy honored, the organization improved processes to recognize and deal with substance abuse more effectively.